M66 Header DB

Digital is a way of representing voltage in 1 bit: either 0 or 1. Digital pins on the Arduino are pins designed to be configured as inputs or outputs according to the needs of the user. Digital pins are either on or off. When ON they are in a HIGH voltage state of 5V and when OFF they are in a LOW voltage state of 0V.

On the Arduino, when the digital pins are configured as output, they are set to 0 or 5 volts.
When the digital pins are configured as input, the voltage is supplied from an external device. This voltage can vary between 0-5 volts which is converted into digital representation (0 or 1). To determine this, there are 2 thresholds:
• Below 0.8V – considered as 0.
• Above 2V – considered as 1.

When connecting a component to a digital pin, make sure that the logic levels match. If the voltage is in between the thresholds, the returning value will be undefined.

In general, Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) is a modulation technique used to encode a message into a pulsing signal. A PWM is comprised of two key components: frequency and duty cycle. The PWM frequency dictates how long it takes to complete a single cycle (period) and how quickly the signal fluctuates from high to low. The duty cycle determines how long a signal stays high out of the total period. Duty cycle is represented in percentage.

In Arduino, the PWM enabled pins produce a constant frequency of ~500Hz, while the duty cycle changes according to the parameters set by the user. PWM signals are used for speed control of DC motors, dimming LEDs and more.

Period-labeled PWM signals at 0%, 25%, and 100% duty cycle.

ADC stands for Analog to Digital Converter. ADC is an electronic circuit used to convert analog signals into digital signals. This digital representation of analog signals allows the processor (which is a digital device) to measure the analog signal and use it through its operation.

Arduino Pins A0-A5 are capable of reading analog voltages. On Arduino the ADC has 10-bit resolution, meaning it can represent analog voltage by 1,024 digital levels. The ADC converts voltage into bits which the microprocessor can understand.

One common example of an ADC is Voice over IP (VoIP). Every smartphone has a microphone that converts sound waves (voice) into analog voltage. This goes through the device’s ADC, gets converted into digital data, which is transmitted to the receiving side over the internet.

Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) is a serial data protocol used by microcontrollers to communicate with one or more external devices in a bus like connection. The SPI can also be used to connect 2 microcontrollers. On the SPI bus, there is always one device that is denoted as a Master device and all the rest as Slaves. In most cases, the microcontroller is the Master device. The SS (Slave Select) pin determines which device the Master is currently communicating with.

SPI enabled devices always have the following pins:
• MISO (Master in Slave out) – A line for sending data to the Master device
• MOSI (Master out Slave In) – The Master line for sending data to peripheral devices
• SCK (Serial Clock) – A clock signal generated by the Master device to synchronize data transmission.

I2C – SCL/SDA pins are the dedicated pins for I2C communication. On the Arduino Uno they are found on Analog pins A4 and A5.

Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) is a serial data protocol used by microcontrollers to communicate with one or more external devices in a bus like connection. The SPI can also be used to connect 2 microcontrollers. On the SPI bus, there is always one device that is denoted as a Master device and all the rest as Slaves. In most cases, the microcontroller is the Master device. The SS (Slave Select) pin determines which device the Master is currently communicating with.

SPI enabled devices always have the following pins:
• MISO (Master in Slave out) – A line for sending data to the Master device
• MOSI (Master out Slave In) – The Master line for sending data to peripheral devices
• SCK (Serial Clock) – A clock signal generated by the Master device to synchronize data transmission.

I2C – SCL/SDA pins are the dedicated pins for I2C communication. On the Arduino Uno they are found on Analog pins A4 and A5.

I2C is a communication protocol commonly referred to as the “I2C bus”. The I2C protocol was designed to enable communication between components on a single circuit board. With I2C there are 2 wires referred to as SCL and SDA.

• SCL is the clock line which is designed to synchronize data transfers.
• SDA is the line used to transmit data.

Each device on the I2C bus has a unique address, up to 255 devices can be connected on the same bus.

Aref – Reference voltage for the analog inputs.
Interrupt – INT0 and INT1. Arduino Uno has two external interrupt pins.
External Interrupt – An external interrupt is a system interrupt that occurs when outside interference is present. Interference can come from the user or other hardware devices in the network. Common uses for these interrupts in Arduino are reading the frequency a square wave generated by encoders or waking up the processor upon an external event.

Arduino has two forms of interrupt: External and Pin Change.
There are two external interrupt pins on the ATmega168/328 called INT0 and INT1. Both INT0 and INT1 are mapped to pins 2 and 3. In contrast, Pin Change interrupts can be activated on any of the pins.